Indigenous Canada

Overview

Every place you will visit in Canada is the homeland of an Indigenous nation. Downtown Vancouver sits on the territory of the Musqueam, Squamish and Tsleil-Waututh Nations. Ottawa stands on unceded Algonquin Anishinaabe land. Nunavut, a territory about three times the size of Texas, has an Inuit majority and Inuktut as an official language. You will see this history in place names, in public art, in the short statements that open concerts and hockey games, and increasingly in the tours, lodges and restaurants that Indigenous communities run themselves.

For a visitor, this is one of the most rewarding parts of Canada. You can sleep in a longhouse outside Quebec City, watch grizzlies in a fjord with a Klahoose guide, stand at the edge of a 6,000-year-old bison kill site in Alberta, or learn to fillet Arctic char from an Inuk elder. Done well, these trips put your money directly into communities and give you a version of Canada most visitors miss.

This page covers the basics you need to do that respectfully: who the peoples are and what to call them, why treaties and land acknowledgments come up so often, how to find businesses that are truly Indigenous-owned, the best experiences by region, powwow etiquette, buying art, the two national days, and the history of residential schools. For broader manners, see Canadian etiquette.

First Nations, Inuit and Métis

Canada's Constitution recognizes three distinct groups of Indigenous peoples. They have separate histories, languages, governments and legal rights, so the terms are not interchangeable.

First Nations

First Nations are the original peoples south of the Arctic, from the Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia to the Haida of the Pacific coast. There are more than 600 First Nations across the country, speaking dozens of languages in several unrelated language families. In the 2021 Census, about 1.05 million people identified as First Nations. Many live in cities; others live in their home communities, some of which are legally reserves under the federal Indian Act.

Inuit

Inuit are the Indigenous people of the Arctic. Their homeland, Inuit Nunangat, has four regions: the Inuvialuit Settlement Region in the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik in northern Quebec, and Nunatsiavut in Labrador. About 70,000 people identified as Inuit in 2021. One person is an Inuk; two are Inuuk; three or more are Inuit. Because the word already means "the people," you will often hear just "Inuit" on its own.

Métis

The Métis are a distinct people who emerged from the fur trade in the 1700s and 1800s, with roots in First Nations and European (mostly French and Scottish) families. Their historic heartland is the Red River area of Manitoba and the Prairies, and their language, Michif, mixes Cree and French. In 2021 about 625,000 people identified as Métis. The word refers to this specific nation and its communities, and people of other mixed ancestry do not use it for themselves. Louis Riel, who led the Red River and Northwest resistances and was hanged in 1885, is a central figure in Métis and Canadian history.

Words to use and words to avoid

• Use "Indigenous" as the general term, and the specific nation whenever you know it: Haida, Cree, Blackfoot, Anishinaabe, Mi'kmaq, Wendat, Dene, Mohawk. People appreciate the effort.
• "Aboriginal" was the official federal term for decades and still appears in the Constitution and on older signs. It is not offensive, but "Indigenous" has replaced it in most usage.
• "Indian" survives as a legal term (the Indian Act, "Status Indian") and in some older names. Do not use it to describe people, and do not use it as a compliment or a costume.
• "Eskimo" is considered offensive in Canada. Say Inuit.
• "Native" is common in casual US speech and still heard in Canada, but it is vaguer and less preferred. "Native American" refers to peoples in the US.
• "Band" and "reserve" are legal terms. Most communities simply call themselves a First Nation and their land the community or territory.
• Say peoples "of" Canada rather than "Canada's Indigenous peoples," which can sound possessive.

Treaties, unceded land and land acknowledgments

Treaties are central to how Canada works, and you will hear about them constantly. They are legal agreements between Indigenous nations and the Crown, and the rights they contain are protected by section 35 of Canada's 1982 Constitution Act.

• Peace and Friendship Treaties (1700s) cover much of the Maritimes and Gaspé. The Mi'kmaq, Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet) and Peskotomuhkati (Passamaquoddy) signed them to end conflict and protect fishing and hunting. They did not surrender land.
• The Numbered Treaties, Treaties 1 through 11, signed from 1871 to 1921, cover most of the Prairies, northern Ontario and parts of the North. If you drive across Manitoba, Saskatchewan or Alberta, you will pass signs welcoming you to "Treaty 6 territory" or similar.
• Unceded territory. Most of British Columbia was never covered by a treaty, so the land was never legally given up. That is why speakers in Vancouver, Victoria and Whistler use the word "unceded." Ottawa and parts of Quebec are also unceded.
• Modern treaties and land claim agreements, such as the 1993 Nunavut Agreement and the Yukon self-government agreements, created today's Inuit and First Nations governments in the North. Eleven of Yukon's 14 First Nations are self-governing.

Land acknowledgments

Many events in Canada open with a short statement naming the Indigenous nations whose territory you are on. You will hear them at concerts, conferences, university lectures, sports games, museum tours and even on airline announcements. Listen quietly, as you would during an anthem. You do not need to respond.

Some Indigenous people value acknowledgments; others find them hollow when they are not backed by action. As a visitor, the most meaningful version is personal: find out whose land you are on before you go, and spend some of your trip and your money with that nation. The Native Land map is a useful starting point, though it is a community project with no legal standing.

Residential schools: the history to understand

You will see orange shirts, memorials of children's shoes, and signs reading "Every Child Matters" across Canada. They refer to the residential school system, which shapes much of what you will hear on Indigenous tours. Understanding the basics will help you listen well.

From the 1880s until the last federally run school closed in 1996, the Government of Canada funded boarding schools for Indigenous children, most of them operated by Catholic, Anglican, United and Presbyterian churches. More than 150,000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis children attended. Many were taken from their families, often far from home, and punished for speaking their languages. Schools were underfunded and disease was common. Survivors have described widespread neglect and physical, emotional and sexual abuse.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, created through the 2007 Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, heard from thousands of survivors and issued its final report in 2015 with 94 Calls to Action. It documented the deaths of thousands of children at the schools, many buried in unmarked graves far from their families. The federal government apologized in 2008. In 2021, the Tk'emlúps te Secwépemc First Nation announced that a ground-penetrating radar survey had located probable unmarked graves of children at the former Kamloops school, and other nations have since searched former school sites. In 2022, Pope Francis apologized in person at Maskwacis, Alberta.

Many people you meet on Indigenous tours are survivors or the children and grandchildren of survivors. You do not need to bring the subject up. If a guide shares family history, listen, thank them, and avoid asking for graphic detail or debating it.

Places to learn

• Woodland Cultural Centre, Brantford, Ontario. On the Six Nations of the Grand River territory, about 1.5 hours southwest of Toronto, in the former Mohawk Institute, one of the few residential school buildings still standing. Check its site for tour availability, which depends on restoration work.
• National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, Winnipeg. At the University of Manitoba, home to the TRC's records and the national memorial register of children who died.
• Canadian Museum for Human Rights, Winnipeg. Galleries on residential schools and Indigenous rights. Pair it with The Forks next door, a meeting place for thousands of years.
• Shingwauk Residential Schools Centre, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. At Algoma University, which occupies the former Shingwauk school, just across the bridge from Michigan.

Finding Indigenous-owned tourism

Plenty of tour companies sell "Indigenous" or "First Nations" experiences. Some are owned and staffed by Indigenous people; others hire a guest speaker or borrow imagery. If you want your money to go to communities, check ownership before you book.

The Original Original mark

The Indigenous Tourism Association of Canada (ITAC), a national nonprofit, awards a mark called The Original Original to businesses it has vetted. To qualify, a business must be at least 51% Indigenous-owned, reflect the values of Indigenous tourism, and offer an experience that is ready for visitors. You will see the logo on websites, brochures and storefronts. Browse members on the ITAC website.

The provinces and territories have their own Indigenous tourism organizations, which often have the deepest listings: Indigenous Tourism BC, Indigenous Tourism Alberta, Indigenous Tourism Ontario, and Tourisme Autochtone Québec, among others. Northern territories' tourism sites also flag Indigenous-owned operators.

How to check a business yourself

• The website names the owning nation, family or community, not just "local Indigenous partners."
• Guides are introduced by name and nation.
• The company carries the Original Original mark or is listed by a provincial Indigenous tourism association.
• The experience is shaped by the community: protocols are explained, some things are not photographed, and some stories are not told.
• Prices are fair. A good cultural guide is a skilled professional, and the cheapest bus tour is rarely the most respectful one.

Experiences by region

Prices are before sales tax. Hours change by season, so check each site before you go.

British Columbia

Alberta and Saskatchewan

Manitoba and Ontario

Quebec and Atlantic Canada

The North

In Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, Indigenous people are a large share of the population and the majority in many communities, so nearly any trip here is an Indigenous experience. See Canada's North for logistics and costs.

Powwows: how to attend

A powwow is a celebration of dance, song and community, and most are open to everyone. Some are competitions with prize money and dancers who travel the circuit; others are traditional gatherings run by a single community. Most happen outdoors from late May to September, with large indoor events at other times of year. Community websites, Facebook pages and local tourism offices post dates; many are announced only a few months ahead.

Well-known Canadian powwows include Kahnawake's summer powwow across the river from Montreal, Wiikwemkoong's on Manitoulin Island in August, and the Manito Ahbee Festival in Winnipeg. Smaller community powwows are often the most welcoming. Check the year's dates before you plan around one.

Etiquette

• Grand Entry opens each session. Dancers enter the arena in order behind the eagle staff, flags and veterans. Stand, remove your hat, and do not photograph unless the emcee says you may.
• Listen to the emcee. They will tell you when photos and video are fine and when they are not, usually during prayers, honor songs, memorial songs and certain dances.
• Regalia is not a costume. Dancers' outfits are often handmade, hold family and spiritual meaning, and may include eagle feathers. Do not touch regalia, hair or feathers, and ask a dancer before you take a portrait.
• If a feather falls, do not pick it up. A dropped eagle feather is treated with ceremony, and dancing may stop while it is retrieved.
• Seating. The benches closest to the arena are usually reserved for dancers and their families. Bring a folding chair and sit behind them, and offer your seat to elders.
• Intertribal dances are open to all. When the emcee invites everyone in, you are welcome to join. Walk or step lightly, follow the circle clockwise, and leave when the song ends.
• No alcohol or drugs at any powwow. Dress modestly.
• Bring cash for gate fees, frybread or bannock, and artists' tables. Buying from vendors is one of the best ways to support the event.

Visiting communities respectfully

Most Indigenous tourism happens on terms the hosts set. That is the point, and following their lead is all that is really asked.

• Visit through a host. Book a tour or a stay rather than wandering through a remote community. Some First Nations and Inuit communities ask visitors to check in at the band or hamlet office, and a few restrict entry.
• Ask before photographing people, homes, ceremonies, graves and sacred sites. Some places, such as Petroglyphs Provincial Park, ban photos outright.
• Ceremonies are by invitation. If you are invited to a smudge (purifying smoke from sage or sweetgrass), you can take part by drawing the smoke toward you, or politely decline. Do not seek out sweat lodges or private ceremonies.
• Elders first. At a feast, elders are usually served before everyone else. Wait to be told when to eat.
• Leave artifacts where they are. Taking stones, bones or objects from historic sites is disrespectful and often illegal.
• Mind alcohol rules. Some northern and First Nations communities restrict or ban alcohol. Ask your host before you bring any.
• Listen more than you ask. Questions about culture are welcome. Asking someone how much "Indian blood" they have, or whether they pay taxes, is not.

Buying authentic Indigenous art

Indigenous art is one of the best things you can bring home from Canada: Northwest Coast masks and silver jewelry, Inuit carvings and prints, Haudenosaunee beadwork, Cree and Dene moosehide slippers, Coast Salish (Cowichan) knit sweaters. Copies are everywhere, so a little care goes a long way.

Inuit art and the Igloo Tag

The Igloo Tag is a trademark created by the federal government in 1958 to certify genuine Inuit art. Since 2017 it has been owned and run by the Inuit Art Foundation, the first time Inuit have controlled it. The program is now under formal review and is not accepting new licensees, so only a handful of dealers attach the tag. A carving with an Igloo Tag is authentic, but plenty of authentic work, especially pieces bought directly from artists or community co-ops, has no tag at all.

How to buy well

• Ask for the artist's name, nation and community. A reputable seller knows them and often has a biography or signed certificate.
• Buy directly from artists at markets, powwows and cultural centers, or from Indigenous-owned shops and community co-ops.
• Museum and cultural center shops, such as those at the Squamish Lil'wat Cultural Centre, the Haida Heritage Centre and Wanuskewin, are reliable.
• Be wary of cheap "Native-style" dreamcatchers, totem poles and moccasins in airport and souvenir shops. Look at the country of origin on the label.
• For a smaller budget, prints, cards, beaded earrings and books by Indigenous authors are good, affordable ways to buy from artists.

June 21 and September 30

National Indigenous Peoples Day, June 21

Held on the summer solstice since 1996, this is a day to celebrate First Nations, Inuit and Métis cultures. Expect powwows, concerts, food and art markets in parks across the country, many of them free. It is a statutory holiday in the Northwest Territories and Yukon; elsewhere it is a regular working day with events in the evenings and on the nearest weekend. If you are in Canada in late June, it is one of the best days of the year to meet Indigenous artists and performers.

National Day for Truth and Reconciliation, September 30

A federal statutory holiday since 2021, it honors residential school survivors and the children who never came home. It shares the date with Orange Shirt Day, which began in 2013 and comes from the story of Phyllis Webstad, a Northern Secwépemc survivor whose new orange shirt was taken from her on her first day at a residential school near Williams Lake, BC, in 1973.

Federal offices and banks close, and it is also a holiday in several provinces and the territories (see When to go), while many other businesses stay open. You will see orange shirts, walks and gatherings, and some museums, including the Canadian Museum of History, offer free admission. It is a day of remembrance, so treat it the way you would treat Memorial Day services at home. If you want to take part, wear orange, attend a public event, and buy official orange shirts from Indigenous-run sources, whose proceeds go to survivor programs.

Planning an Indigenous-focused trip

Indigenous experiences fit into almost any itinerary. A few ways to build them in:

• Quebec City weekend: add a half day and dinner in Wendake, or a night at the Hôtel-Musée Premières Nations.
• Whistler or Vancouver: the Squamish Lil'wat Cultural Centre, the Museum of Anthropology and an Indigenous-led walk in Stanley Park fit easily into a week.
• Calgary and the Rockies: Head-Smashed-In is a day trip south of Calgary, and the Stampede's Elbow River Camp, with tipis run by Treaty 7 families, is part of the July grounds.
• Saskatoon or Edmonton: Wanuskewin and Métis Crossing each justify a day, and Métis Crossing's sky domes make a quiet aurora stay.
• The North: book Indigenous-owned aurora, dog sledding and fishing tours in Yellowknife, Whitehorse and Iqaluit. See The North.
• Food: look for bannock, bison, wild rice, cedar-planked salmon and Arctic char. See Food.

What trips people up

• Seasons. Many cultural centers and tours shorten hours in winter, and some remote trips (Gwaii Haanas, Klahoose, the Torngat Mountains) run only from spring to fall.
• Distances. Haida Gwaii, Nunavut and the Torngats need flights and a lot of lead time. Book lodging and tours together.
• Assuming one culture. The Haida, the Blackfoot and the Inuit are as different from each other as Norwegians and Greeks. Learn a little about the specific nation before you go.
• Mistaking a gift shop for a cultural center. Check who owns the place.